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Massachusett is an indigenous Algonquian language of the Algic language family. It was the primary linguistic communication of several peoples of New England, including the Massachusett in the area roughly corresponding to Boston, Massachusetts, including much of the Metrowest and South Shore areas just to the due west and south of the metropolis; the Wampanoag, who however inhabit Greatcoat Cod and the Islands, nigh of Plymouth and Bristol counties and south-eastern Rhode Island, including some of the small islands in Narragansett Bay; the Nauset, who may have rather been an isolated Wampanoag sub-group, inhabited the farthermost ends of Cape Cod; the Coweset of northern Rhode Island; and the Pawtucket which covered most of north-eastern Massachusetts and the lower tributaries of the Merrimack River and declension of New Hampshire, and the farthermost southernmost point of Maine. Massachusett was also used equally a common 2nd language of peoples throughout New England and Long Island, particularly in a simplified pidgin class.^[1]

The missionary John Eliot learned the language from bilingual translators and interpreters. In writing downward the language, he used the Latin alphabet and English language-style orthographical conventions. By the 1650s, Eliot had begun translating portions of the Bible, some published, that were distributed to the Indians, and the Indians that learned to read became active agents in the spread of literacy. Eliot used the dialect of the Massachusett, specifically the spoken language of Natick, in his Bible translation—the first Bible in any language printed in the Americas—and other printed works; dialect leveling ensued. Several other missionaries fluent in the language likewise offered their own missionary tracts and translations. By the 1670s, only twenty years later Eliot'south first translations, 1 in three Indians were literate. The language faded every bit Indians faced increasing dispossession and assimilation pressures, with the last speakers dying off at the tail cease of the nineteenth century.

In 1993, Jessie Niggling Doe Baird (née Fermino), co-founded the Wôpanâak Language Reclamation Project in an effort to bring the linguistic communication back to her people. She studied at the Massachusetts Establish of Technology with linguists Kenneth Hale and later Norvin Richards. In her primary's thesis, completed in 2000, Baird introduced a modernized orthography, one that while yet based in Latin and inspired by the colonial organisation, represented a one-to-one correlation betwixt sound and spelling.^[2]

Pre-writing [edit]

Drawing of the engravings on Dighton Rock in the Taunton River, the best known site in Massachusetts. Examples of like depictions carved into rocks have been constitute across New England, such equally Bellows Falls, Vermont.

Prior to the introduction of literacy past the missionary Eliot, the Massachusett-speaking peoples were mainly an orally transmitted culture, with social taboos, mores, customs, legends, history, knowledge and traditions passed from the elders to the adjacent generation through song, stories and discussion. With peoples from further away, speakers switched to a pidgin variety of Massachusett used across New England, merely when spoken language failed, sign language was used. Picayune is known about the Eastern Woodlands Algonquian sign language other than its usage. Lenape were often recruited in the wars with the Indians of the west because of their ability to effectively communicate in silence. Fifty-fifty American Sign Language was likely influenced by the sign language of the Wampanoag of Martha's Vineyard, who interacted with a big population of English language colonists who were deaf and signed. Martha's Vineyard Sign Language went extinct at the beginning of the twentieth century, but many of its users were influential in the development of ASL.^[3] Petty is known of it other than its existence, but it was probable similar in scope and usage such as extant Plains Indian Sign Linguistic communication.

Ojibwe wiigwaasabak. Similar dendroglyphs likely were used by the Indians of New England.

The most important class of symbolic communication that the Indians employed were dendroglyphs. These symbols carved into trees and logs served as purlieus markers between tribes, to thank local spirits in the wake of a successful hunt and to record ane's whereabouts. Moravian missionaries in the mid-eighteenth century noted that the Lenape of Pennsylvania and New Jersey would carve animals and etchings onto copse when they camped, and were able to pinpoint the tribe, region or village of symbols that they encountered. Similarly, the Abenaki peoples of northern New England used etchings on copse to marking paths or drew beaver huts and ponds to marker their trapping areas. The Mi'kmaq pictographic tradition was afterward converted into a truthful writing organization with adjustments by French missionaries. These symbols were likewise painted. In 1813, residents found a tree carved into the shape of a woman and a child around Lake Winnipesaukee. Evidence for dendroglyphic picture writing in southern New England is lacking, every bit nigh of the trees were felled by the Federal Period, with current forests consisting of secondary growth later on farms were abandoned for land in the Great Plains in the cease of the nineteenth century.^[four] The markings may have been like to the wiigwaasabak of Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) culture in telescopic and usage, able to record mnemonically songs related to ritual traditions, meetings between clans, maps and tribal identity.^[5]

Designs such as these were painted or woven into Nipmuc baskets into the 1920s. The lines represent fields, while the domes correspond wetus with dots representing people. Arranged in groups, it represents a village and its people.

Pictographs carved into the rocks appointment back to the middle Archaic Period, ca. 6000-4000 BC up until a century later colonization. About notorious are the etchings on Dighton Rock in the Taunton River only as well several sites around Assawompset Swimming. The figures depicted on Dighton Stone are similar to those of Bellows Falls, Vermont and other sites across New England. Most depictions include carved easily, the lord's day, the moon in various phases, people or spirits, anthropomorphic beings, various native animals, markings like to the messages 'E,' 'Yard,' '10,' and 'I,' slashes and crosses, circles that may represent planetary figures, copse, river courses and figures from shamanic tradition like giants, thunderbirds and horned serpents. During and after colonization, some describe Europeans and ships. Many are carved almost water, and probably because these were sacred sites, commemorated historic agreements or to mark the land.^[6]

Early adopters of literacy are known to have signed their names with creature symbols related to their tribe, clan or stature. For a century afterwards English arrival, the Indians continued to mark rocks and trees, and one site in Massachusetts features a large boulder, with depictions of wetus from equally far back every bit 3000 years old, to depictions of ships shortly after the period of English settlement began, and a few drawings and the Latin messages of the owner's name, where a Wampanoag family was present until the early on twentieth century.^[6] As late as the 1920s, Nipmuc women in key Massachusetts, a people closely continued culturally and linguistically with the Massachusett-speaking peoples, yet made traditional baskets that were often decorated with woven or painted symbols representing the local mural, such as the use of domed figures for homes (wetus), dots for people, parallel and diagonal lines to represent plots of state and other symbols whose pregnant are lost. It is unknown whether or not the basketry traditions represent a continuation or have any connection to the before petro- and dendroglyph traditions.^[seven]

Alphabet [edit]

Colonial			Modern			Example
Letter	Values	Name	Letter	Values	Proper noun	Colonial	Mod	English
A a	/a/, /aː/, /ã/, /ə/	a	A a	/a/	( a )	appin [8]	( apun ) /apən/, 'bed'[9]	'bed'
			Â â ane , five	/aː/	( â )	ókéomꝏs [10] ágqushau- [11] pasuk	( âhkeeôm8s ) /aːhk ˈiː ˌãm ˌuːs/ [12] ( âquhshô- ) /aːkʷəhʃã-/ [xiii] ( pâsuq ) /paːsək/	'bee' 'to go underneath something' 'ane' (of something)
B b 2	/b/four, /p/	bee				Bible -baug	(Bible) ( -pâq ) /paːk/	'Bible' 'pond'
C c two	/k/, /southward/, /ʃ/	ſee (see)				consteppe mockis	(lawman) ( mahkus ) /mahkəs/	'constable' 'shoe'
Ch ch	/tʃ/, /tʲ/, /tjᵊ/	chee	Ch ch	/tʃ/	cha	chippanꝏonk [fourteen]	( chapunuwôk ) /tʃapənəwãk/ [15]	'division'
D d ii	/d/4, /t/	dee				Deuteronomy 3 [16] adtôau [17]	(Deuteronomy) ( atôwâw ) /atãwaːw/	'Deuteronomy' 'he/she intends' (to purchase)
Eastward due east	/iː/, /ə/, /∅/, /jᵊ/	e	E e	/ʲᵊ/	( e )	westepitteash [18] wuttuckdue east [19] nes [20]	( weeputeash ) /wiːpətjᵊaʃ/ [21] ( wuhtuhq ) /wəhtəhk/ ( nees ) /niːs/	'his teeth' 'wood'
			Ee ee one	/iː/	( ee )	nees [20] menan [22]	( nees ) /northiːsouth/ [23] ( meenan ) /miːnan/ [22]	'two' (someone'south) 'natural language'
F f 3	/f/iv, /p/	ef				figſe (figse)	('figs')	'fig'
K g two	/g/4, /k/, /dʒ/4, /ʒ/4	gee				Kalilee 3 [24] 1000eorge ahtuquoone thousand	(Galilee)[24] (George) ahtuqak /ahtəkʷak/	'Galilee' 'George' 'deer' (pl)
H h	/h/, /∅/	* aitch (?)6	H h	/h/	( ha )	howan [25] mohpeeak [26]	( hâwan ) /hawan/ [27] ( mapeeak ) /mapiːak/	'who?' (someone's) 'hips'
I i	/ə/, /iː/, /aːj/, /aj/	i				' Indiansog wompi	(Indiansak ) ( wôpây ) /wãpaːj/	'Indians' (Native Americans) 'information technology is white' (color)
J j ii , 7	/dʒ/four, /ʒ/4, /tʃ/, /tʲ/, /tjᵊ/	ji				Jehovah manitt nawaj sonjum [28]	(Jehovah manut ) ( nawach ) /nawatʃ/ ( sôtyum ) /sătʲəm/	'God Jehovah' 'I go along' 'chief', 'leader'
1000 g	/k/	ka	M grand	/1000/	( ka )	ken [29]	( thoueen ), /one thousandiːn/ [xxx]	'you lot' (atypical)
L l 3	/l/4, /north/	el				leviathan 3 [31]	(Leviathan)[31]	'Leviathan'
M m	/m/, /~∅[/p/]/	em	M g	/m/	( ma )	mꝏse [32] wogpoose [33]	( m8s ), /1000uːs/, 'moose'[34] ( wôp8s ) /wãpuːs/	'moose' 'wompoose' (extinct Eastern elk)
North n	/n/, /~∅/	en	Due north due north	/n/	( na )	nedue north [35] usquonorthwardd [36]	( neen ), /northiːn/ [30] ( usqôt ) /əskʷãt/ [37]	'I' or 'me' 'door'
O o	/a/, /aː/, /ã/, /ə/	o				ohke [38] cyberspaceop [39] weetauom- [40]	( ahkee ) /ahkiː/ [41] ( neetôp ) /niːtãp/ [30] ( weetawâm- ) /wiːtawaːm/ [42]	'my friend' 'world' 'to marry'
			Ô ô 1	/ã/	( ô )	mꝏôi wasketomp	( m8ôây ) /muːãaːj/ [43] ( waskeetôp ) /waskiːtãp/ [9]	'it is deep' 'man'
Ꝏ ꝏ 8	/uː/, /wə/, /əw/, /ə/	* ꝏ (?)half dozen	8 viii 1	/uː/	( 8 )	askꝏchiliad [44] hettꝏonk ' ꝏweemattog'	( inquire8k ) /askuːk/ [45] ( hutuwôk ) /hətəwãk/ ( weematak ) /wiːmatak/	'ophidian' 'speech' 'his/her brothers'
P p	/p/	pee	P p	/p/	( pa )	pummee [46]	( pumee ) /pəmiː/ [47]	'fat' or 'grease'
Q q	/kʷ/, /k/9	kéuh	Q q	/kʷ/, /k/9	( qa )	quaqueu [48] mosq mettugqosh	( qaqeew ) /kʷakʷiːw/ [49] ( masq )[49] ( mehtuqash ) /məhtəkʷaʃ/	'she/he runs' 'deport' 'trees'
R r 3	/r/4, /n/	ar				rabbi 3 [50]	(rabbi)[50]	'rabbi'
Due south south ſ	/s/, /ʃ/	eſ (es)	S southward	/southward/	( sa )	sépu [51] Maſſachuſett	( seepuw ) /southwardiːpəw [52] ( Muhsouthachuw [ ee ] sut )	'river' 'Massachusett'
			Sh sh ane	/ʃ/	sha	kꝏſh [53]	( k8sh ) /kuːʃ/ [54]	'your father'
T t	/t/	tee	T t	/t/	( ta )	taquonck [55]	( taqôk ) /taqãk/ [56]	'autumn'
			Ty ty i	/tʲ/	( tya )	keteau [57] wetu	( keetyâw ) /kiːtʲaːw/ [57] ( weetyuw ) /wiːtʲəw/	'he/she recovers' 'wigwam'
U u	/uː/, /a/, /ə/	u	U u	/ə/	( u )	ummissies [58] wetu	( umuhsees ) /əməhsiːs/, 'his/her sis'[54] ( weetyuw )	'her/his sister' 'domicile'
V five 3 , 7	/v/4, /p/	vf (uf), úph				silver [59]	(silver)[59]	'silver'
W w	/w/	wee	West w	/w/	( wa )	westwardeyaus [60] mauag [61]	( westeeyâwestsouth ) /wiːjaːwestwarddue south/ [62] ( mawak ) /mawak/	'meat' 'they cry'
Ten x 2	/ks/, /z/4	eks				oxenog nu10	(oxenak) ( nukees ) /nəkiːs/	'oxen' 'yes'
Y y	/j/, /aj/, /aːj/, /iː/	wy	Y y	/j/	( ya )	yau [63] wopy	( yâw ) /jaːw/, '4'[64] ( wôpây ) /wãpaːj/	'four' 'information technology is white'
Z z ii	/z/iv, /s/	zad				Zion [65] kez[i]heau [66]	(Zion)[65] ( keesuheâw ) /kiːsəhjᵊaːw/ [66]	'Zion' 'she/he creates'
Y (Þ) y (þ) 3 , 8	/θ~ð/4, /t/	* thorn (?)6				Y urſday monday y	(Thursday) (month)	'Thursday' 'calendar month'

• ^one Exists as a separate letter in the mod alphabet.
• ^2 Used in both native and English language loan words in the colonial organization. Non used in the modern spelling save proper names and places.
• ^3 But exists in loan words in the colonial spelling.
• ^iv Pronunciation merely found in loan words in English, and probable, only found among speakers proficiently bilingual in English, otherwise was substituted with closest native equivalent.
• ^5 Vowels with a circumflex ( ˆ ) in the colonial spelling more often than not indicated the nasal vowel /ã/ or that the vowel was stressed or long, which could also be indicated by the acute accent ( ´ ). Although  and Ô were not considered carve up messages in the colonial alphabet, they are in the modernistic alphabet.
• ^half dozen Eliot never listed a name for these symbols.
• ^7 The colonial alphabet differentiated J and Five from I and U even though this was not the case in the English alphabet at the time. These letters are now considered distinct in well-nigh languages that utilize the Latin alphabet, just are not in use in the modernistic script every bit they stand for sounds non plant in the linguistic communication.
• ^viii The double ligature Ꝏ was not considered a letter, only its modern variant viii is in the mod alphabet. The alphabetic character thorn, although used as a letter in Eliot's period, was replaced past the digraph Thursday and was non listed as part of the Massachusett alphabet and stopped beingness included in the English alphabet.
• ^9 Q in terminal positions is pronounced as /k/ in both spelling systems.

Orthography [edit]

Colonial organization [edit]

Pinnacle right corner of the first page of Genesis from the 1663 printing of Eliot'due south translation of the Bible. One can see the diacritics and long due south that were in use.

As Eliot listened to the Indians from the Praying Boondocks of Natick, he wrote down words according to English language orthography, which later developed into the colonial arrangement in use from the 1650s until the mid-nineteenth century. Eliot used the entire Latin alphabet every bit used in English at the time to write the language.

Accent marks [edit]

Vowels could exist marked with the acute accent ( ´ ) or the circumflex ( ˆ ) over the vowel. As a general rule, the acute accent served to mark stress or to lengthen a vowel, and the circumflex was used to mark nasal vowels. Notwithstanding, colonial ô was consistently used for /ã/, whereas â was used to marker nasal vowels besides every bit the long vowel /aː/. Both the Indians and the English missionaries used these accent marks sparingly, only when they were employed, usage was inconsistent and sometimes interchangeable.

The possible vowels with diacritics include astute accent Á , É , Í , Ó and Ú too every bit circumflex accent  , Ê , Î , Ô and Û . Only  and Ô are in common use, the other vowels with circumflexes are only rarely attested and generally used where, prescriptively, an acute accent would be used.^[67] They practise serve every bit disambiguation, for instance, e could represent /ə/ such every bit in hdue eastttuog ( hutuwôk ) /hətəwãk/, 'speech,' /iː/ in kdue eastdue north ( keen ) /thousandiːn/, 'you' or the /j/ in wepitteash , but é always represents /iː/, equally in wunnékin ( wuneekun ) /wəniːkən/, 'it is good.' At other times, the marks are confusing, as in the case of what would be ( awasuw ) /awasəw/ in the modern orthography, 'he warms himself,' which was written as auwossu , ouwassu , âwosu (suggesting /ãwasəw/) and auwósu (suggesting /awaːsəw/) in the colonial script.^[68]

Retentiveness of primitive Early on Mod English features [edit]

As Massachusett was first committed to writing just around 1650, based on an accommodation of the Latin alphabet and English language orthography, it adopted aspects of Early on Modern English conventions that disappeared in England by the belatedly seventeenth century, just probably lingered a few generations after in the American colonies due to isolation. Since John Eliot wrote at this fourth dimension, it was natural that orthographical conventions in use were transferred into Massachusett. It shares the following features:

• Due south has a variant minuscule grade, the long s 'ſ' used every bit s but word initially or medially. It is easily confused with f, which in print and handwriting of the fourth dimension often was written akin to the florin 'ƒ'. Although not mostly reproduced when discussing the linguistic communication, either in this article or scholarly literature, most printed and handwritten texts of the English and the Indians would have featured ſ in place of south discussion-initially or give-and-take-medially in the seventeenth century.
  Early Modern English 'aſſure' and 'fiſsure' but 'is' vs. Modern 'assure,' 'ƒissure and 'is.'
  Colonial Massachusett woſketop , Maſſachuſett just weyaudue south vs. Modern ( wasouthwardkeetôp ), ( Muhsachuwusouthut ) and ( weeyâwsouthward ).
• East is oftentimes a silent letter at the end of words, and consonants are doubled before it, or final yard is written ck.
  Early Modernistic English 'ſhoppe' and ' logickeastward ' and Modern English 'shop' and 'logic.'
  Colonial wompatucke and wampumpeague and Modern ( wôpuhtuq ) /wãpəhtək/, 'snowfall goose,' and ( wôpôpeeak ) /wãpãpiːak/, 'stringed wampum.'
• J is notwithstanding considered a consonantal variant of I, and I replaces J peculiarly in formal texts discussion initially. The end of Early on Modern English language finally led to its separation as a distinct letter of the alphabet. In the colonial alphabet, J is used to represent /tʃ/, /tjᵊ/ and /tʲ/ in native words.
  Early Mod English 'Julius' or 'Iulius' and 'juſt' or 'iuſt' and Mod 'Julius' and 'just.'
  Colonial Massachusett waju and nawaj and Mod ( wach8 ), 'mount,' and ( nuwach ) /nəwatʃ/, 'main.'
• O represented the short vowel /ʊ/ in Early on Modern English, but this has mostly been replaced by U, e.g., 'sommer' and modern 'summer,' simply mutual words such as 'some,' 'ane,' 'come' and 'dearest' retain the spelling of Middle English. In the colonial orthography for Massachusett, o is commonly interchangeable equally a symbol for a, thus could represent /a/, /aː/ and /ã/ and fifty-fifty /ə/.
  Early on Modern English 'ſommer' vs. 'plommes' vs. Modern 'summer' and 'plums' (but still '1' and 'some' not *'wun' and *'sum')
  Colonial Massachusett maſquog and ohtomp vs. Modern ( masqak ) /maskʷam/, 'bears,' and ( ahtôp ) /ahtãp/, 'bowstring.'
• U is not yet distinguished from V. As a general dominion, v is used initially and U elsewhere, although in formal texts and volume titles, V was more common. Although past Eliot'due south time, the use of v as a consonant and u as a vowel was beginning to develop as a general rule, information technology was yet in that transition. When applied to Massachusett, U was a vowel and V, its consonantal variant, was used for loan words from English, such every bit ſilver and Jehovah , notwithstanding, were not distinguished as separate letters.
• Y, originally descended from Anglo-Saxon runic Þ, was used to write /θ/ and /ð/. Although the Normans replaced it with th, the practice of using Y came from the similarity in certain blackness letter fonts to Y (/j/) in utilize during Middle English. By Early Modern English language, the use of Y to represent the one-time letter Þ 'thorn,' was fading in impress, just remained in handwriting and occasionally in print as a autograph for thursday, oftentimes with either the letter or the letters later on in superscript to distinguish it from Y (/j/). Although information technology was not part of the Massachusett alphabet, information technology was likely used to spell some loan words from English especially in the early colonial period.
  Early Modern English 'y ^is and y ^at' and 'whi ^y er ^y i ^y er' vs. Modern 'this and thursdayat' and 'whither thithursdayer.'
  Colonial Massachusett mon ^y and Y ^urſday (loans from English language).

Modern system [edit]

The Old Indian Church and Meetinghouse of the Mashpee Wampanoag tribe. The first literate Indian parishioners used the old colonial orthography, but today, the Mashpee and three other Wampanoag tribes utilise the modern arrangement developed past the WLRP at the turn of the 20-first century.

The modern, phonetic system in use by the ( Wôpanâak ) Language Reclamation Projection was offset introduced past Baird in her main'southward thesis, An Introduction to Wampanoag Grammar, which she completed 2000 at MIT. Baird adjusted the writing organization to ameliorate fit the phonology of the language. She found vocabulary and Massachusett radicals from the big corpus of missionary translations and personal letters and records of literate Indians that survives today—it is, in fact, the largest corpus of Native American written document in Northward America. Pronunciation was pieced together with clues in the early writing, too as through comparative linguistics work studying sound changes and other patterns of development from Proto-Algonquian and its various descendants.

Alphabetic differences [edit]

The most striking feature of the new orthography is substitution of ( viii ) for the double-o ligature ꝏ of the colonial period. This was done to ease inputting, rendering and printing and possibly because of its resemblance to the ou-ligature ȣ used in Algonquin and Abenaki Latin-script orthographies, although the Abenaki accept also replaced ȣ with 8 for similar reasons. For example, historical mꝏs (Massachusett) and mȣs (Abenaki) and WLRP ( m8s ). Inspired by the colonial script, the modern orthography uses ( â ) and ( ô ) which resemble A and O with circumflexes, but modern usage restricts the former to represent /aː/ and the latter /ã/ whereas any vowel with a circumflex ordinarily indicated nasality in the colonial script. These are considered letters in their own corresponding correct, and non vowels with diacritics, in the mod orthographical arrangement.

As the WLRP favors resurrecting old vocabulary, neologisms based on Massachusett radicals or use of forms from other extant languages over the employ of English loan words, the new alphabet noticeably lacks the messages F , 50 , V and R , used only in loan words, as well as B , C , D , G , J , and Z that were previously used in both loans and native words as alternates to their respective voiced or unvoiced counterparts.^[67] Although excluded from the alphabet, these letters are used to write proper names and some loans from English as all speakers and language learners and speakers today are native English speakers in a predominately English language-speaking nation. 10 , which mainly appears in rare syncopated versions of native words and English language loan words, now only appears in loan words, but was originally used in dialects that allowed for syncopation.

Exceptions to phonemic spelling [edit]

The Modern orthography lacks the confusing assortment of multiple, oftentimes contradictory, spellings, essentially representing a 1-to-1 correspondence between sound and spelling. It lacks gemination (letter doubling), silent E's, letter thorn, excessive English language loan words and frustratingly variant spellings of the previous system.

A few exceptions to the general rule exist. ( Q ) as /kʷ/ earlier vowels and /1000/ elsewhere, where ( K ) would be expected. The reason for this is considering information technology prevents alternations between ( Q ) and ( K ) when medial and final radicals are appended, information technology would remain ( Q ) earlier certain ones and ( K ) elsewhere. For case, in Colonial spelling, the word for 'bear' was moſk or moſhk (but also moſhq and moſq ), only when any endings, such every bit the plural or obviative endings are attached, Q was always used, often accompanied past U , e.grand., masquog or mosquoh whereas the modern orthography avoids this alteration by using ( Q ) in all cases, with a simple rule to gleam its proper pronunciation, hence modern ( masq ) /mask/, 'bear,' ( masqash ), 'bears' and ( masqah ) 'deport' (obviative).^[69]

( TE ) and the letter ( TY ) produce essentially the same alveo-palatal /tʲ/ sound, although in that location is a slight difference in their respective origins which is distinguished in the orthography. The letter ( TY ) represents palatization of /thousand/, which occurs when /m/ is followed past /ə/, if that /ə/ is etymologically a weakened grade of PEA *ī, which is in turn followed by either /hp/, /p/, /m/, /hk/ or /chiliad/. Palatization is also triggered when /1000/ is followed by /aː/, which derives from PEA *ē, and /əw/, which remains unchanged from PEA *əw. For example, ( weekuw ), 'it is his/her house,' vs. ( weety8 ), 'house,' both derive from Proto-Algonquian * wi·chiliadiw[a·ʔmi] and ( sôtyum ) from Proto-Algonquian * sa·kima·wa .^[57]

( TE ) is really ( T ) followed by ( E ), the latter is used to represent vowel amore. In Massachusett, this involves /j/-insertion before vowels that follow /iː/ or /ə/ but subsequently /n/, /h/, /t/ or /ht/.^[70] For example, ( weeputeash ) /wiːpətjᵊaʃ/, 'his teeth.' In both cases, the /ə/ descends etymologically from Proto-Eastern Algonquian /iː/. Although like, infection often occurs as a replacement for a vowel that was once present. For instance, Massachusett ( weeputeash ) descends from Proto-Algonquian * wi·pitiari . ( Due east ) is used similarly to the Colonial orthography, where E was used in analogous positions. Although ( E ) is taken equally /j/, near current speakers, and likely historical speakers, pronounce information technology every bit /jᵊ/ which is represented here.

The colonial orthography used the ligature letter ꝏ generally represented /uː/ just was as well used in place of /wə/ and /əw/, whereas these sounds are represented in the modern orthography as ( eight ), ( wu ) and ( uw ), respectively. In rapid speech, /uː/ and /əw/ tin be dislocated, for case, Colonial hettꝏonk vs. Modern ( hutuwôk ) /hətəwãk/, 'speech.'^[71]

Consonants and clusters [edit]

Comparison of consonants and consonantal clusters in both orthographies

Sound	Colonial	Modern	Colonial case	Modern instance
/tʃ/	ch, dt, dj, j	(ch)	cheek[east]hikunk [72]	( cheekuheekôk ) /tʃiːkəhiːkãk/, 'broom'[73]
/h/	h, hh	(h)	howan [25]	( hawân ) /hawaːn/, 'who?'[27]
/htʃ/	hch, ch, tch	(hch)	mohchiyeu [74]	( mahchây8- ) /mahtʃaːyuː/, 'to be room plenty' or 'to be empty'[75]
/hk/	hk, k, kk	(hk)	ohkeast [76]	( ahkee ) /ahkiː/, 'earth' or 'land'[41]
/hm/	m, mm, hm	(hm)	mꝏmꝏsquehe- [77]	( m8hm8hshquhe- ) /muːhmuːhʃkʷəhə-/, 'to cause to go aroused,' 'to provoke' or 'to cause to complain'[43]
/hn/	due north, hn, nn	(hn)	nehnikikôsu [78]	( neehneekuhkôsu ) /niːhniːkəhãsə-/, 'to be torn'[79]
/hp/	p, pp, hp	(hp)	appapit [80]	( ahpaput ), /ahpapət/, 'place upon which he/she sits'[80]
/hpw/	hpw, hp, pp, p	(hpw)	supp[attau] [81]	( suhpwahtâ- ) /səhpwahtaː-/, (of the eyes) 'to be close'[82]
/hkʷ/	qu, hq, hqu, hgu, gu	(hq)	ahquon [83]	( uhqôn ) /əhkʷãn/, 'hook'[21]
/hs/	ss, s, hs	(hs)	hassan [84]	( ahsunited nations ) /ahsən/, 'stone'[85]
/hsw/	hsw, sw, hs, hsu	(hsw)	chikkóswu- [86]	( chakahswu- ) /tʃakahswə-/, 'to be burned' (by fire)[87]
/hʃ/	sh, hsh, hs	(hsh)	nush- [88]	( nuhsh- ) /nəhʃ-/, 'to impale'[89]
/hʃw/	hshw, hsh, hshu, hsu	(hshw)	quoshwi- [ninety]	( qahshwee- ) /kʷahʃwiː-/, 'to be gear up'[91]
/ht/	ht, t, tt	(ht)	mehtauog [85]	( muhtawaq ) /məhtawak/, 'ear'[85]
/htjᵊ/	the, hti, tt	(the)	kꝏchteau- [92]	( k8theaw- )[93]
/htʲ/	the, hti, tt	(hty)	kogkahtim- )[94]	( kakâhtyum- ) /kakaːhtʲəm/, 'to advise'[95]
/htw/	ht, htw, tt, t	(htw)	nattin- [96]	( nahtwun- ) /nahtwən/, 'to accept'[97]
/hw/	hw, hu, hꝏ	(hw)	sahwuchuan [98]	( sahwuchuwan ) /sahwətʃəwan/, 'to flow out' or 'to discharge'[87]
/grand/	c, k, thousand, q, ck, kk', cg, kg	(k)	mꝏsh [99]	( 10008sh ) /one thousanduːʃ/, 'your (sg.) father'[54]
/one thousand/	m, mm	(m)	matta [100]	( mata ) /mata/, 'no' or 'not'[101]
/mw/	mw, mu, mꝏ	(mw)	annimuog	( anumwak ) /anəmwak/, 'dogs'[nine]
/due north/	n, nn	(n)	nénorth [102]	( due northeedue north ) /niːnorth/, 'I' or 'me'[xxx]
/nw/	nw, nu	(nw)	nanweetu [103]	( nanweetyuw ) /nanwiːtʲɘw/, 'she/he is common born,' 'he/she is a commoner'[104]
/p/	p, b, bb, bp, pb, pp	(p)	pasuk [17]	( pâsuq ) /paːsək/, '1' (unitary thing, not the number)[105]
/prisoner of war/	pw, po, pu	( prisoner of war )	chupwuttoonapwaog [106]	( chupwut8nâpuwôk ), /tʃəpwətuːnaːpəwãk/, 'osculation'[107]
/kʷ/	q, qu, gu	(q)	quinni [108]	( qunây ) /kʷənaːj/, 'it is long'[109]
/s/	south, z, ss, zz, sz	(s)	southwardepꝏ [110]	( southwardeepuw ) /siːpuː/ [52]
/sk/	sk, shk, sc, sg	(sk)	askꝏk [44]	( ask8k ) /askuːk/, 'snake'[45]
/skʷ/	squ, sq, sgu, shqu, shq	(sq)	sonkisq[ua] [111]	( sôkusqâ ) /sãkəskʷaː/, 'female chief,' 'queen' or 'wife of the principal'[112] [113]
/sw/	sw, su, s	(sw)	mꝏsusu- [10]	( m8swôsu- ) /muːswãsə-/, 'to exist shaven'[114]
/ʃ/	sh, s	(sh)	mehtugquosh	( muhtuqash ) /məhtəkʷaʃ/, 'trees'
/ʃk/	sk, shk	(shk)	wuski , wushkeast	( wushkee ) /wəʃkiː/, 'new'
/ʃp/	sp, shp	(shp)	nashpdue east [eighty]	(nashpee) /naʃpiː/, 'with'[80]
/ʃkʷ/	squ, sq, shq, shqu	(shq)	quoshquussausu- [115]	( qashqusôsu- ) /kʷaʃkʷəsãsə-/, 'to be circumcised'[109]
/ʃw/	shw, sw	(sw)	nanashwdue east- [xc]	( nanashwe- ) /nanaʃwə/, 'to be prepared'[116]
/t/	t, tt, dt, d, dd	(t)	tamogkon [117]	( tamakun ) /tamakən/, 'flood'[118]
/tjᵊ/	t[e], t[y], t[i]	(te)	wepitteash [119]	( weeputeash ) /wiːpətjᵊaʃ/, 'his/her teeth'[21]
/tw/	tw, tu	(tw)	natwantam [120]	( natwântam ) /natwaːntam/, 'to consider something'[79]
/tʲ/	te, ti, t[u], ty, ch, dj, j, jt, ge	(ty)	sachem [121]	( sôtyum ) /sãtʲəm/, 'chief'[122]
/w/	w	(due west)	wasketop [123]	( waskeetôp ) /waskiːtãp/, 'man'[124]
/j/	y, i	(y)	yáw [125]	( yâw ) /jaːw/, '4'[64]

Vowels and vowel-semivowel combinations [edit]

Comparing of vowel and vowel-semivowel combinations

Sound	Colonial	Modern	Colonial example	Mod example
/a/	a, au, o, u	(a)	ohtomp [126]	( ahtôp ) /ahtãp/, 'bowstring'[127]
/aw/	au, aw	(aw)	kenau [128]	( keenaw /kinaw/, 'you' (pl.)[30]
/awa/	awa, aua, oa, owa, awo	(awa)	wadtauatonkqussuwonk [129]	( watawahtôqusuwôk ) /watawahtãkʷəsəwãk/, 'voice' or 'sound'[130]
/awã/	awô, auwo, awá	(awô)	nadtauwompu [131]	( natawôpu- ) /natawãpə-/, 'to expect for'[132]	/aj/
/aja/	aya, aia, ia	(aya)	piaquttum [133]	( payaquhtam /pajakʷəhtam/, 'to have authorization over'[134]
/ajuː/	ayeu, aiꝏ	(ay8)	northayeum [135]	( northay8yard ) /naju/, 'to be ridden'[136]
/ajã/	iu, iô, aiâ	(ayô)	piusuhke [137]	( payôsuhkee- ) /pajãsəhkiː-/, 'to be upwards against,' 'to be bordering'[134]
/ajə/	ayu, ayeu, ayꝏ	(ayu)	ayeuwuttúonk [138]	( ayuwuhtyuwôk ) /ajəwəhtʲəwãk/, 'fighting'[139]
/aː/	a, ai, á, â, o, ó, ah, oa	(â)	nuppaih [140]	( nupâh ) /nəpaːh/, 'I wait' (for him/her)[140]
/aːa/	aa, oa, áa	(âa)	Wampanoagrand	( Wôpanâak ) /wãpanaːak/, 'Wampanoag' (people)
/aːaː/	aa, oá, aá	(ââ)	westaáp- [141]	( wââp- ) /waːaːp-/, 'up'[142]
/aːiː/	ae, aé, aee	(âee)	ompuhmaquae [143]	( ôpuhmaqâee- ) /ãpəhmakʷaːiː-/, 'to turn (oneself) around'[144]
/aːã/	aon, aô, aâ, ꝏwan	(âô)	quénꝏwantam- [145]	( qunuwâôtam- ) /kʷənəwaːãtam-/, 'to deny'[109]
/aːw/	aw, au, âu, áu	(âw)	âu	( âw ) /aːw/, 'he/she goes'[146]
/aːj/	i, y, ae, ie, ei	(ây)	ashkoshqui [147]	( ashkashqây ) /aʃkaʃkʷaːj/, 'information technology is green'[thirteen]
/aːja/	io, iu	(âya)	piu1000 [148]	( pâyaq ) /paːjak/, 'ten'[134]
/aːjə/	aya, ia	(âyu)	mayateau [149]	( mayuhtyâ ) /majəhtʲaː/, 'to make a path'[150]
/jᵊa/	ea	(ea)	wettohimunneash [151]	( wutâheemuneash ) //wətaːhiːmənjᵊaʃ/, 'strawberries'[151]
/jᵊaːã/	eao[n], eô, eâ, eo[n], eo[m]	(eâô)	wunnompeuhkohteaonk [152]	( wunôpeuhkahteâôk ) /wənãpjᵊəhkahtjᵊaːãk/, 'craftiness'[64]
/jᵊã/	eo[1000], eo[n], ea[n], ea[m], eâ, eô	(eô)	ꝏsq[ui]heonk [153]	( wusqueeheôk ) /wəskʷiːhjᵊãthou/, 'her/his blood'[154]
/jᵊə/	eu, ei, ea, eo	(eu)	wunnompeuhkohteaonk [152]	( wunôpeuropean unionhkahteâôk ) /wənãpjᵊəhkahtjᵊaːãk/, 'craftiness'[64]
/jᵊəw/	eꝏ, euw, uuw	(euw)	woshkenunneꝏ- [155]	( washkeenuneuw- ) /waʃkiːnənjᵊəw/, 'to be young'[64]
/iː/	e, é, i	(ee)	northwardeastwardk [156]	( neeyard ) /niːk/, 'my house'[146]
/iːaː/	ea, éa, ia	(eeâ)	ushpeatau [157]	( ushpeeâhtaw- ) /əʃpiːaːhtaw/, 'to make raised' or 'to brand get upwardly'[142]
/iːə/	european union, éa, éu	(eeu)	ohkeussó- [158]	( ahkeeuhshâ- )[159]
/iːw/	due east, é, i	(ee)	quogquiu [48]	( qaqeew ) /kʷakʷiːw/, 'he/she runs'[49]
/iːwə/	ewe, eewe, ewi	(eewu)	péwehe- [133]	( peewuhe- ) /piːwəhə-/, 'to debase' or 'to make small'[136]
/iːjə/	center, center, eyu	(eeyu)	uttꝏcheyeuꝏ [160]	( ut8cheeyuwu- ) /ətuːtʃiːjəwə-/, 'to be a time' or 'to be the (right) season'[142]
/ã/	á, â, ô, u, a[grand], a[north], o[m], o[n]	(ô)	pohpuwonthousand [80]	( pôhpuwôthousand ) /pãhpəwãyard/, 'playing' or 'the act of fun play'[161]
/ãa/	ôa, áa, óa	(ôa)	wahteauatu- )[162]	( whatôatu- ) /wahtãatə-/, 'to understand each other'[142]
/ãaːj/	ói, ôi, ôy	(ôây)	ꝏnóiꝏ [163]	( 8nôâyuw ) /nãaːjəw/, 'to be dark blue'[136]
/ãiː/	ôé, âe, ôi	(ôee)	waénuhkauw [164]	( westôeenuhkaw ) /wãiːnəhkaw/, 'to surroundings'[150]
/ãw/	o , ó , ô , au	( ôw )	keekꝏoash [165]	( keekuwôwash )[37]
/ãwa/	ôa. ôo, âwa	(ôwa)	magkôatik [166]	( makôwatuk ) /makãwatək/, 'that which is precious'[167]
/ãwaː/	ou, oa, awa	(ôwâ)	moui- [168]	( one thousandôwâwee- ) /thouãwaːwiː-/, 'to assemble'[132]
/uː/	ꝏ, u, oo, ó, ú	(viii)	mꝏs [32]	( mviiis ) /mus/, 'moose'[34]
/uːaːã/	ꝏwo, ꝏâu , oowo	(8âô)	unnontoowaog	( unôt8âôk /ənãttuːaːãk/, (a) 'people's language'[34]
/uːə/	ui, ꝏi	(8u)	santuit	( sôty8ut ) /sãtuːət/, 'identify of the sachem'[34]
/uːw/	ꝏ, oo, úw	(8w)	thousandꝏi	( g8wây ) /guːwaːj/, 'it is black'[43]
/uːwa/	ua, ꝏwo, ꝏwa	(8wa)	' penꝏwoht [169]	( peen8waht ) /piːnuːwaht/, 'a stranger'[134]
/ə/	a, eastward, i, o, u	(u)	ugrandishꝏn [170]	( u1000uhsh8n ) /əthouəhʃuːn, 'his/her boat'[171]
/əw/	u, ꝏ, uw	(uw)	pittu [57]	( putyuw ) /pətʲəw/, 'information technology is pitch'[57]
/əwa/	uwa, ua, ꝏa	(uwa)	kꝏashawog [172]	( k8shuwayard ) /kuːʃəwayard/, 'your (pl.) fathers'[54]
/əwiː/	ui, ae, uwe, ꝏwe	(uwee)	ôsꝏwe- [173]	( ôsuwee- ) /ãsəwiː/, 'to change'[174]
/əwã/	uwo, ꝏô , awô	(uwô)	upꝏnukkuwoh [175]	( up8nukuwôh ) /əpuːnəkəwãh/, 'he/she (obv.) puts them'[176]
/əj/	due east, ey, ei	(uy)	peantam [177]	( puyôhtam ) /pəjãhtam/, 'to pray'[178]

References [edit]

Bibliography [edit]

• Baird, J. Fifty. D. "Fun With Words". Wôpanâak Linguistic communication Reclamation Project, 2014.
• Costa, David J. "The dialectology of Southern New England Algonquian." In 38th Algonquian Conference, 81-127. 2007.
• Eliot, John. Indian Grammer Begun. Cambridge, MA: Marmaduke Robinson, 1666.
• Eliot, John, trans. Mamvsse Wunneetupanatamwe Upward-Biblum God (The Holy Bible containing the Former Testament and the New), rev. ed., 1685.
• Fermino, Jessie Footling Doe. "An Introduction to Wampanoag Grammer." Master's Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2000.
• Goddard, Ives. "Eastern Algonquian every bit a genetic subgrouping." Algonquian Papers-Archive 11 (1980).
• Goddard, Ives. "Unhistorical features of Nassachusett." Edited past J. Fisiak, Historical Linguistics and Philology: Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs (TILSM), vol. 46, 228–233. Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter, 1990.
• Goddard, Ives. "Introduction." In Ives Goddard, ed., The Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 17. Languages, 1–16. 1996.
• Hewson, John. "Proto-Algonquian Roots." 2014. Compiled from data generated in the publication of Hewson's A Computer-Generated Lexicon of Proto-Algonquian. Canadian Ethnology Service: Mercury Series Newspaper 125. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1993.
• Hicks, Nitana. "A List of Initials and Finals in Wôpanâak." Main's thesis, Massachusetts Constitute of Technology, 2006.
• Hoffman, Due west. J. "The Mide'wiwin or "One thousand Medicine Order" of the Ojibwa." In Seventh Annual Report of the Agency of Ethnology to the Secretarial assistant of the Smithsonian Establishment, 1885-1886, 286–89. Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1891.
• Lenik, Eastward. J. Making Pictures in Stone: American Indian Rock Art of the Northeast. Tuscaloosa: Academy of Alabama Press, 2009.
• Nash, J. C. P. "Martha's Vineyard Sign Linguistic communication." In Julie Bakken Jepsen, Goedele De Clerck, Sam Lutalo-Kiingi, and William B. McGregor, eds., Sign Languages of the World: A Comparative Handbook. Boston, MA: Walter de Gruyter, 2005.
• Pritchard, Eastward. T. Native New Yorkers: The Legacy of the Algonquin People of New York. Tulsa, OK: Council Oak Books, 2002.
• Prindle, T. (1994). 'Nipmuc Splint Basketry.', Nipmuc Indian Association of Connecticut. Adapted from Native splint basketry: A Primal into the Language of Woodsplint Baskets, edited past Russell G. Handsman and Ann McMullen, published in 1987 by the American Archaeological Constitute in Washington, CT.
• Trumbull, James Hammond. Natick Dictionary. Bureau of American Ethnology Message 25. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1903.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Goddard, "Introduction," 1–16.
2. ^ Fermino, 9.
3. ^ Pritchard, 151-55; Nash, 608-12.
4. ^ Lenik, 23-34.
5. ^ Hoffman, 286-89.
6. ^ ^{a b} Lenik, 113-38.
7. ^ Prindle, 'Nipmuc Splint Basketry'.
8. ^ Trumbull, 13.
9. ^ ^{a b c} Fermino, eleven.
10. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 224.
11. ^ Trumbull, iv.
12. ^ Fermino, 18.
13. ^ ^{a b} Hicks, 11.
14. ^ Trumbull, 246.
15. ^ Hicks, 13.
16. ^ Deuteronomy. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.
17. ^ ^{a b} Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 57.
18. ^ Trumbull, 128.
19. ^ Trumbull, 346.
20. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 295.
21. ^ ^{a b c} Fermino, 20.
22. ^ ^{a b} Goddard, "Unhistorical Features," 229.
23. ^ Hicks, 24.
24. ^ ^{a b} I Kings 9:eleven. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.
25. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 29, 344.
26. ^ Trumbull, 277.
27. ^ ^{a b} Fermino, 14.
28. ^ Costa, 84-85.
29. ^ Trumbull, 32.
30. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fermino, 26.
31. ^ ^{a b} Job 41:1. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse Wunneetupanatamwe Upward-Biblum God.
32. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 66, 297.
33. ^ Wiktionary. Proto-Algonquian lemmas. *wa·p- and *mo·swa.
34. ^ ^{a b c d} Baird.
35. ^ Trumbull, 180.
36. ^ Trumbull, 247.
37. ^ ^{a b} Fermino, xv.
38. ^ Trumbull, 281.
39. ^ Trumbull, 264.
40. ^ Trumbull, 287.
41. ^ ^{a b} Fermino, 59.
42. ^ Hicks, 48.
43. ^ ^{a b c} Hicks, 19.
44. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 324.
45. ^ ^{a b} Wiktionary aθko·ka.
46. ^ Trumbull, 134, 302.
47. ^ Wiktionary. pemyi.
48. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 141, 316.
49. ^ ^{a b c} Fermino, 13.
50. ^ ^{a b} John six:25. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God.
51. ^ Trumbull, 315.
52. ^ ^{a b} Fermino, 48.
53. ^ Trumbull, 56, 112.
54. ^ ^{a b c d} Fermino, 22.
55. ^ Trumbrull, 159.
56. ^ Hewson, 274.
57. ^ ^{a b c d e} Goddard, "Unhistorical Features," 230.
58. ^ Trumbull, 230, 322.
59. ^ ^{a b} I Chronicles 29:2. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse Wunneetupanatamwe Upwards-Biblum God.
60. ^ Trumbull, 191, 260.
61. ^ Trumbull, 52.
62. ^ Fermino, 40.
63. ^ Trumbull, 214, 264.
64. ^ ^{a b c d eastward} Hicks, 46.
65. ^ ^{a b} Micah 4:7. Eliot, trans., Mamvsse Wunneetupanatamwe Upwardly-Biblum God.
66. ^ ^{a b} Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 58.
67. ^ ^{a b} Eliot, Indian Grammar Begun, 9.
68. ^ Goddard, "Unhistorical Features."
69. ^ Fermino, 12-13.
70. ^ Ferminio, 9.
71. ^ Hicks, 41.
72. ^ Trumbull, 22.
73. ^ Hicks, 12, 57.
74. ^ Trumbull, 61, 315.
75. ^ Hicks, 16.
76. ^ Trumbull, 102, 250.
77. ^ Trumbull, 310.
78. ^ Trumbull, 323.
79. ^ ^{a b} Hicks, 23.
80. ^ ^{a b c d due east} Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 64.
81. ^ Trumbull, 150.
82. ^ Hicks, 38.
83. ^ Trumbull, 168, 278.
84. ^ Trumbull, 27, 328.
85. ^ ^{a b c} Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 65.
86. ^ Trumbull, 34, 230.
87. ^ ^{a b} Hicks, 81.
88. ^ Trumbull, 98, 298.
89. ^ Hicks, 25.
90. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 309.
91. ^ Hicks, 34.
92. ^ Trumbull, 41.
93. ^ Hicks, 14.
94. ^ Trumbull, 219, 238.
95. ^ Hicks, 15.
96. ^ Trumbull, 73-74.
97. ^ Hicks, 21.
98. ^ Trumbull, 261.
99. ^ Trumbull, 113, 256.
100. ^ Trumbull, 51, 300.
101. ^ Hicks, 18.
102. ^ Trumbull, 81, 280.
103. ^ Trumbull, 77.
104. ^ Hicks, 57.
105. ^ Hicks, 30.
106. ^ Trumbull, 25, 284.
107. ^ Hicks, 50.
108. ^ Trumbull, 140.
109. ^ ^{a b c} Hicks, 35.
110. ^ Trumbull, 148, 315.
111. ^ Trumbull, 153, 296.
112. ^ Wiktionary. *sa·kima·wa.
113. ^ Wiktionary. *eθkwe·wa.
114. ^ Hicks, 54.
115. ^ Trumbull, 142, 234.
116. ^ Hicks, 22.
117. ^ Trumbull, 164, 239.
118. ^ Hicks, 39.
119. ^ Trumbull, 186, 335.
120. ^ Trumbull, 79.
121. ^ Trumbull, 316.
122. ^ Fermino, iii.4
123. ^ Trumbull, 198, 292-293.
124. ^ Fermino, 51.
125. ^ Trumbull, 214, 263.
126. ^ Trumbull, 104, 228.
127. ^ Wiktionary. *ahta·pya.
128. ^ Trumbull, 32.
129. ^ Trumbull, 340.
130. ^ Hicks, 43.
131. ^ Trumbull, 290.
132. ^ ^{a b} Hicks, 67.
133. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 125.
134. ^ ^{a b c d} Hicks, 31.
135. ^ Trumbull.
136. ^ ^{a b c} Hicks.
137. ^ Trumbull, 126.
138. ^ Trumbull, 258.
139. ^ Hicks, 58.
140. ^ ^{a b} Goddard, "Eastern Algonquian," 69.
141. ^ Trumbull, 177-178, 315.
142. ^ ^{a b c d} Hicks, 42.
143. ^ Trumbull, 105.
144. ^ Hicks, 55.
145. ^ Trumbull, 138, 244.
146. ^ ^{a b} Fermino, 31.
147. ^ Trumbull, 15.
148. ^ Trumbull, 125, 226.
149. ^ Trumbull, 53, 298.
150. ^ ^{a b} Hicks, 58.
151. ^ ^{a b} Wiktionary. *wete·himini.
152. ^ ^{a b} Trumbull, 203.
153. ^ Trumbull, 206, 227.
154. ^ Wiktionary. *meskwi.
155. ^ Trumbull, 205, 347.
156. ^ Trumbull, lxxx, 191.
157. ^ Trumbull, 322.
158. ^ Trumbull, 102, 268.
159. ^ Hicks, 10.
160. ^ Trumbull, 177.
161. ^ Hicks, 32.
162. ^ Trumbull, 183, 293.
163. ^ Trumbull, 227.
164. ^ Trumbull, 330.
165. ^ Trumbull, 191.
166. ^ Trumbull, 46, 309.
167. ^ Hicks, 61.
168. ^ Trumbull, 65.
169. ^ Trumbull, 122, 318.
170. ^ Trumbull, 70.
171. ^ Fermino, 21.
172. ^ Trumbull, 257.
173. ^ Trumbull, 111, 233.
174. ^ Hicks, 28.
175. ^ Trumbul, 357.
176. ^ Fermino, 58.
177. ^ Trumbul, 120, 309.
178. ^ Hicks, 79.

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